Short Term Memory free essay sample

Compare and contrast the model of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) with one major theory of working memory. Human memory is a major area of interest and study within the field of cognitive psychology and has been research intensively and is constantly being studied to establish new findings into the field of human memory. Quinlan Dyson (2008). Many memory theorists have attempted to give their accounts of human memory systems by suggesting a number of Models in order to attempt to describe human memory in every day life. Eysenck Keane (1997) The following essay compares and contrasts the differences between Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) multi model of memory and the Baddeley Hitch (2000) revised working memory model of memory. Atkinson Shriffin (1968) famously developed a model of human memory and tried to describe the human memory system by describing a number of stores which is known as the multi store model approach. The multi store model describes three types of memory store. We will write a custom essay sample on Short Term Memory or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Sensory stores, short term memory store and long term memory store. AttentionRehearsal Decay Displacement Inference Figure 1. The multi store model of memory cited from Eysenck Keane (1997) pg 125. The Atkinson Shriffin (1969) model describes that the sensory stores are the first basis that a humans receives information into. The model suggests that humans firstly take in information from our sensory stores information from the sensory stores which are then transferred into a human’s short term memory. From short term memory the model describes that through rehearsal within Short term memory, information is transferred into long term memory, which is then stored and remains permanent over a life time. The sensory stores are where humans take in information from their senses. This can be visual senses (iconic memory), Hearing senses (echoic memory) and Touch senses (Haptic memory). The sensory buffer which stores information from the senses is only capable of retaining the information for  a short period of time, even when the information from a humans senses is not attended to immediately, however it still can be retrieved if done very quickly. Iconic memory has a capacity varying between 0. 3 to 1 second. Echoic memory durations last typically between 3 to 4 seconds. Lastly Haptic memory lasts for around approx 2 seconds. Short term memory, which is also known as working memory, is thought that rehearsal of a specific memory within short term memory can eventually be stored into long term memory. Short term memory is thought to be able to hold seven points of information. Short term memory was first described by Miller (1966) who strongly believed that a human Short term memory can hold seven chunks of memory or minus two. This has also been added by Simon (1974 cited in Eysenck 2000) who found that Short term memory can hold twenty two words for eight word phases and for unrelated words it was seven. Long term memory is the permanent memory store where memory is thought to be permanent and has an unlimited capacity. Long term memory is acquired by rehearsal of information from short term memory which remains over a life time unless brain injury or illness effecting memory occur or old age. Baddeley Hitch (2000) devised their own model of working memory. They criticized Atkinson Shriffin multi store model with regards to the simplicity that their model applied to their beliefs on Short term memory. They did agree to some element that in order to retain information into long term memory it had to be rehearsed in short term memory, although they proposed that it was much more complex than the multi store model attempted to explain. There first model by Badley Hitch of working memory was devised in 1974 and with recent research it has been improved and had various items added to it and has kept it in line with modern research into the area of human memory. Figure 2. Working memory model cited from Quinlan Dyson (2008) pg 382 The working memory model of Baddeley Hitch explains that rehearsal only takes place in the phonological loop and does not place as much emphasis on rehearsal within short term memory compared to the multi store model of Atkinson Shriffin Baddeley Hitch attempted to expand the model put forward to Atkinson Shrifin as they believed that there was more elements of human memory. They described three components to their working memory model, the central executive, the phonological loop, visual spatial sketchpad and the most recent in 2000 the episodic buffer. The central executive is thought to be the most important component of the model, with both the phonological loop, visual spatial sketchpad and episodic buffer being termed as slave systems for the central executive. Eysenck (2000). The Central executive is described as being the driving force and manages the whole working memory system. It is thought that the Central executive manages all the other components within the working memory system which controls where attention is drawn to. The Central executive is thought to deal with all cognitive activities, which can control doing two things at once, more than one schema can be activated. This was derived from the Norman Shallice model (1986 cited in Quinlan Dyson 2008) and has the ability to place working memory into long term memory. However it must be noted that the Central executive has a limited capacity, which is hard to measure its capacity. Eysenck Keane (1997) The phonological loop is a system that deals with speech and all verbal materials that a human is exposed to and is useful for such things such as remembering digits of a telephone number when just told it by a form of rehearsal such as repeating the numbers in your head. It has been referred to as the inner voice as it stores words that are planned to be spoken. Quinlan Dyson (2008). The phonological loop is divided into two separate parts, the phonological store and the articulatory control system. The phonological store is part of the model that is able to retain spoken information for approx two seconds. articulatory control system rehearses information from the phonological store. This part of the model with regards to rehearsal is similar to Broadbents (1958 cited in Quinlan Dyson 2008). Information can be lost at this point if not gone through the rehearsal process. The model attempts to describe that short term forgetting can happen from trace decay. The visual spatial sketchpad is part of the model that process visual information which is stored in short term memory. It can hold information such as colour, shapes of objects and sizes. This has been termed the ‘inner eye’ Gross (2001). The visual spatial sketchpad is thought to process spatial movement planning. Logie (1995). An example could entail knowing the route to drive to a shopping centre and planning where to park your car, knowing that the car park is behind the shopping centre. A third component was added to the original model which was termed the episodic buffer. The episodic buffer is a form of store which backs up and links with different components of working memory and long term memory McLeod (2008). The episodic buffer takes in information from various ways such as verbal and visual and formed of a multi- dimensional coding and can be retrieved when needed. In comparing and contrasting both of the models, they differ with regards to the process of short term memory the multi store memory model only describes two memory stores, whereas the working memory model describes short term memory is part of different subsystems and not as straight forward that the multi store memory model proposes. Both models can be termed as being similar in certain aspects and interestingly both of the models support different brain damaged patient’s case studies. Patient HM was unable to transfer short term memory into long term memory after his hippocampus was removed. He could remember information from the past before the removal of his hippocampus from his long term memory. However at present he can remember new information for only a short amount of seconds. Pinel (2006) The case of HM supports Atkinson Shriffin’s multi store model. In comparison brain damaged patient KF who had a bad motor bike accident could remember more visual stimuli compared to auditory stimuli. Pinel (2006) This supports the model of Baddeley Hitch who describe that the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketch pad is formed of two parts for short term memory. The Atkinson Shriffin model has been criticized for being far too simple, as the model suggests that short term and long term memory form singularly. However research into this area has established that both short term and long term memory are more complicated and not as straight forward as the model suggests. Baddeley Hitch (1974) attempted to explain that short term memory is not one single store, it is more complicated and is actually composed of different components, including the central executive, the visuo- spatial pad, phonological loop and the episodic buffer. The Baddeley Hitch working memory model is more up to date compared to the Atkinson Shriffin multi store model and has all the advantages of the work of recent researchers, whereas the Atkinson Shriffin model has not been updated in recent years and they could potentially be more informative with regards to the complexity of Short term memory, to make the model not so simplistic. Perhaps if they were to devise the multi store model again, with all the updated research on short term memory it may have some changes and not be so straight forward and more valuable. The Atkinson Shriffin model has also suggested that in order to gain information into long term memory, rehearsal is required in order to transfer short term memory into long term memory. As we are able to hold information into long term memory that has not been rehearsed such as swimming. As on the other hand information that has been rehearsed such as reading notes for examination revision is not always able to be recalled. Also various other types of long term memory have been found including episodic, procedural and semantic. Mc Leod (2007) The Atkinson Shriffin model has also been extremely criticised for being a one way liner model, whereas the Baddeley Hitch working memory model is not a one way liner model. However the working memory model has been criticised with regards to the central execuitive, as there is not a lot of evidence on how it works. It has also been pointed out that the central executive is extremely hard to measure. Eysenck Keane (1997) It also has been noted that it is unitary and research has found from studies of individuals that have Had the removal of cerebral tumour that it consists of two components Eslinger Damasio (1985 cited in Eysenck Keane 1997). Baddeley Hitch’s working memory model mainly focuses on the process of memory, whereas the Atkinson Shriffin model can be accused of only focusing on attention and rehearsal and ignores the elements of memory process and instead only concentrates on the structure of memory. Both the Atkinson Shriffin multi store model and Baddeley Hitch working memory model provide valuable accounts of Human memory, however the main difference between the two models is the factor of short term memory. Baddeley Hitch provide a more in depth complex explanation of short term memory compared to Atkinson Shriffin account of short term memory. The main difference between the two models is that multi store model describes short term memory as a temporary passive store, which does not process information, whereas the working memory model believe that short term memory has a passive storage which activate processing. The multi store model describes the sensory store an attention system rather than a storage store as information not attended to is lost. In comparison the working model describe information as short term memory activated and not as straight forward as the multi store memory describes i. e. it hold information long enough in order for the information to be processed in order to use it. Both the multi model of memory and working model of memory agree that short term information can be derived from long term memory. The working memory model describes that information can be stored for approx 2 seconds whereas the multi working model of memory describe that if information is not rehearsed it can last to approx 20 seconds. The multi store model of memory describe short term memory having a being able to hold seven items or minus two and when rehearsed stored into long term memory. Although the working model with regards to short term memory describe that the amount of information is down to the timing of recalling information The Atkinson Shriffin has been very valuable in generating a large amount of interest into memory research, which leads to the deviation of the working memory model. In comparison the Working memory model is also a valuable model and has also generated a large amount of research and interest in the area of human memory, which has lead to other models being proposed. Both models have been valuable and starting point for researchers to study memory in various memory experiments. There are other memory models which have been devised by different cognitive psychologists but the multi working memory model and the working memory model are the most influential in the area of memory Atkinson Shriffin multi store memory is widely used for experiments. Quinlan Dyson (2008). The serial position effect has been found on various studies which support the notion of the multi store memory model. Gershberg Shimura (1994) conducted two studies into the serial position effect. They found that when participants were tested straight after a word list without a delay, words presented at the end of the list were remember more than words presented at the middle. This was also found by Murdock (1962 cited Eysenck 200) who found that items on a list were recalled better from the end and the beginning. This supports the notion of the multi store model that rehearsal in short term memory is transferred into long term memory. It has been pointed out that the working model of memory has many advantages over the multi store model of memory. Both models have support from research; the multi store memory model is backed up by research into short term memory and amnesic patients and brain surgery patients. The working memory model has support from research investigating the dual- task technique. The dual- task technique is by where more than one task is preformed at the same time which suggests that individual tasks use separate components of short term memory. This was found by Kellog who found that participants were able to perform two different tasks at the same time. i. e. Using two different sub parts of short term memory (1996 cited in Craig et al 1996). In conclusion the Baddeley Hitch working memory model is much more informative with regards to fully describing how memory works compared to the Atkinson Shriffin model, which can be deemed as more basic in comparison. The multi store memory model is valuable starting point for investigators who want to use a basic model for their research whereas the working memory model is valuable for researchers who want to base their research on a more detailed complex model.

Cigarette Should Be Banned Essay Example

Cigarette Should Be Banned Essay Example Cigarette Should Be Banned Essay Cigarette Should Be Banned Essay Cigarettes Should be Banned Smoking cigarettes has been a worldwide habit for a long time. According to the World Health Organization report, about 2 billion people smoke all over the world, 48% men and 12% women and even a number of child smokers. Everyone knows the harm of cigarettes and many countries have published smoking bans. The Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan was the first one to forbid tobacco sales (BBC News). I strongly approve of the cigarette ban because cigarette is bad for people’s health and the litter will cause environmental pollution. I do not smoke, so I have no idea how exactly people feel when they smoke. Some people smoke to keep their weight, others need cigarettes to focus on something, and some believe smoking is pleasant and refreshing. There is a funny saying that Chinese heavy smokers always say, â€Å" smoking after dinner is more than living god. † No matter the reason that people like smoking, they should not ignore the disadvantages of cigarettes. My grandfather died from lung cancer in 2008. He had smoked more than fifty years. I would not say that he died because of smoking, but we cannot deny that lung cancer is indeed a tobacco-related disease. Smoking speeds up the process of aging and each cigarette smoked costs smokers six minutes of their life (HubPages). Every year, tobacco kills almost six million people, which includes five million users and ex users and even more that 600,000 nonsmokers affected by second-hand smoke. â€Å"Approximately one person dies every six seconds due to tobacco and this accounts for one in 10 adult deaths,† According to the World Health Organization (Tobacco, Media centre). Beside lung cancer, many other diseases caused by smoking such as blockage of the arteries, which causes strokes, heart attacks and impotence (Health Canada), high blood pressure and chronic bronchitis. Cigarettes contain nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide. Nicotine is highly addictive, and if people stop smoking temporarily then that person will become lethargic. According to research, nicotine from one cigarette can kill a mouse. To nonsmokers, even though they do not touch any cigarettes they might get some diseases as well. For instance, a father smokes a lot, a mother does not smoke, and their baby may have congenital malformation or even worse: die young. You cannot blame anyone but the cigarettes. Some families come apart because of smoking. Sometimes, teenagers learn to smoke because they see some adults doing it, or someone passes the cigarettes to them. Thus, cigarette smoke not only causes diseases, but also misguides young generations. No matter the smokers or nonsmokers, as long as they got diseases resulted from cigarette use, they would pay the medical fee to cure their diseases. So, another bad effect is spending unnecessary money for curing diseases result from cigarette smoke. Everyone cares about his or her healthy problems caused by cigarettes. But is there anyone concerned about the continuing pollution of the environment? Cigarettes do have a big effect on that pollution. Air pollution is one of the most important topics that people pay attention to. No matter the cigarette smoke or second hand smoke, they all belong to indoor air pollution. Tobacco Control once reported, cigarette smoke emits 10 times more air pollution than any diesel car exhaust. In addition, when cigarettes burn, they release nicotine, carbon monoxide, particulates and 4,000 different types of chemicals, which are bad for people’s health into the air. Also, the cigarette butts thrown on the ground or on the beaches can release the harmful chemicals into the air and water. Besides air and water pollution, deforestation happened in order to increase farmland for tobacco growth and cure tobacco plants. â€Å"An estimated 200,000 hectares of forests and woodlands are cut down each year because of tobacco farming,† According to Bellagio statement in June 1995 (Environmental issues). There is even more deforestation today than before. Tobacco plants leech nutrients from the soil also causing environmental deterioration just like fertilizers and pesticides pollute the environment. The tobacco factories produce a huge amount of waste almost everyday as well. The global tobacco industry produced about 2. 3 billion kilograms of waste and 209 million kilograms of chemical waste in 1995 (Environmental issues). Numbers do not lie and these numbers do not even include the immense amount of litter resulting from non-biodegradable cigarette butts. Cigarette butts indeed are a curse. People throw cigarette butts anywhere including some places that have inflammable material such as forests. Cigarette butts cause about 100,000 U. S. and 1 million global fires per year. And cigarette fire causes an estimated 30% of U. S. death because of fire and 10% of global death burdens by fire (Davis). In 1987, the Greater Khingan Range in China, which is a huge forest, burned by fires for 28 days. Since that day, people in China finally noticed that the power of fires. Fewer and fewer people throw cigarette butts into forests any more. But there are still some who do not remember the lessons and litter cigarette butts in hotels, schools and theatres. Almost every year has news reported about fires caused from cigarette butts in public places. Also, cigarette butts affect society’s appearance, and there is not anyone who likes to live around cigarette butts. In addition, the cigarette industry spends billions each year on advertising and promotion. According to the Centers for Disease Control, there are $9. 94 billion total spent in 2008 and $27 million spent a day in 2008 (Smoking and Tobacco Use). Tobacco use cost the United States billions of dollars each year, of what cigarette smoking costs above $193 billion and secondhand smoke costs more that $10 billion (Smoking Statistics). Besides that, every state in America spent a lot of money on tobacco control. Every cloud has a silver lining. Federal cigarette tax increases will raise additional revenue of government and strengthen development of economy. As long as economy develops, it will push tobacco marketing forward. As the economy grows, agriculture will expand, and help increase employment opportunities. Nowadays, more and more people want to quit smoking. Among adult smokers, approximately 69% of smokers want to quit completely and about 52% of smokers attempted to quit in 2010 (Morbidity and Mortality). People become politically awakened little by little, and this is a good start to help government ban cigarettes. People should begin from every aspect of their daily life. For example, stop passing cigarette to another people; stop smoking at home or in front of children, and find something else to divert attention on cigarettes. Health is the most important in our life. Do not let cigarettes/tobacco ruins our beautiful life. Bhutan Forbids All Tobacco Sales. BBC News. BBC, 17 Dec. 2004. Web. 12 Sept. 2012. http://news. bbc. co. uk/2/hi/south_asia/4012639. stm. 30 Tips For Younger Looking Skin (Part 2). HubPages. N. p. , n. d. Web. 12 Sept. 2012. http://ingenira. hubpages. com/hub/30-Tips-on-How-to-Have-a-Younger-Looking-Skin-2. Tobacco. WHO. N. p. , May 2012. Web. 12 Sept. 2012. who. int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/index. html. Impotence and Smoking. Health Canada. N. p. , 16 Feb. 2009. Web. 12 Sept. 012. hc-sc. gc. ca/hc-ps/tobac-tabac/body-corps/disease-maladie/infertilit-eng. php. Environmental Issues. WHO. Bellagio, June 1995. Web. 12 Sept. 2012. who. int/tobacco/research/economics/rationale/environment/en/index. html. Davis. Fire Injuries, Disasters, and Costs from Cigarettes and Cigarette Lights: A Global Overview. National Center for Biotechnology Information. U. S. National Library of Medicine, 31 Aug. 2000. Web. 12 Sept. 2012. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/10938207. Morbidity and Mortality. Centers for Disease Control and

Battle of Cape Esperance at Guadalcanal

Battle of Cape Esperance at Guadalcanal The Battle of Cape Esperance took place the night of October 11/12, 1942. It was part of the Guadalcanal Campaign of World War II. Background In early August 1942, Allied forces landed on Guadalcanal and succeeded in capturing an airfield that the Japanese were building. Dubbed Henderson Field, Allied aircraft operating from the Guadalcanal soon dominated the sea lanes around the island during daylight hours. As a result, the Japanese were forced to deliver reinforcements to the island at night using destroyers rather than larger, slower troop transports. Dubbed the Tokyo Express by the Allies, Japanese warships would depart bases in the Shortland Islands and make the run to Guadalcanal and back in a single night. In early October, Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa planned a major reinforcement convoy for Guadalcanal. Led by Rear Admiral Takatsugu Jojima, the force consisted of six destroyers and two seaplane tenders. In addition, Mikawa ordered Rear Admiral Aritomo Goto to lead a force of three cruisers and two destroyers with orders to shell Henderson Field while Jojimas ships delivered their troops. Departing the Shortlands early on October 11, both forces proceeded down The Slot towards Guadalcanal. While the Japanese were planning their operations, the Allies made plans to reinforce the island as well. Moving to Contact Departing New Caledonia on October 8, ships carrying the US 164th Infantry moved north towards Guadalcanal. To screen this convoy, Vice Admiral Robert Ghormley assigned Task Force 64, commanded by Rear Admiral Norman Hall, to operate near the island. Consisting of the cruisers USS San Francisco, USS Boise, USS Helena, and USS Salt Lake City, TF64 also included the destroyers USS Farenholt, USS Duncan, USS Buchanan, USS McCalla, and USS Laffey. Initially taking station off Rennell Island, Hall moved north on the 11th after receiving reports that Japanese ships had been sited in The Slot. With the fleets in motion, Japanese aircraft attacked Henderson Field during the day, with the goal of preventing Allied aircraft from locating and attacking Jojimas ships. As he moved north, Hall, aware that the Americans had faired badly in previous night battles with the Japanese, crafted a simple battle plan. Ordering his ships to form a column with destroyers at the head and rear, he instructed them to illuminate any targets with their searchlights so that the cruisers could fire accurately. Hall also informed his captains that they were open fire when the enemy was sited rather than waiting for orders. Battle Joined Approaching Cape Hunter on the northwest corner of Guadalcanal, Hall, flying his flag from San Francisco, ordered his cruisers to launch their floatplanes at 10:00 PM. An hour later, San Franciscos floatplane sighted Jojimas force off of Guadalcanal. Expecting more Japanese ships to be sighted, Hall maintained his course northeast, passing to the west of Savo Island. Reversing course at 11:30, some confusion led to the three lead destroyers (Farenholt, Duncan, and Laffey) being out of position. About this time, Gotos ships began appearing on the American radars. Initially believing these contacts to be the out of position destroyers, Hall took no action. As Farenholt and Laffey accelerated to reassume their proper positions, Duncan moved to attack the approaching Japanese ships. At 11:45, Gotos ships were visible to the American lookouts and Helena radioed asking permission to open fire using the general procedure request, Interrogatory Roger (meaning are we clear to act). Hall responded in the affirmative, and his surprise the entire American line opened fire. Aboard his flagship, Aoba, Goto was taken by complete surprise. Over the next few minutes, Aoba was hit more than 40 times by Helena, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Farenholt, and Laffey. Burning, with many of its guns out of action and Goto dead, Aoba turned to disengage. At 11:47, concerned that he was firing on his own ships, Hall ordered a cease-fire and asked his destroyers to confirm their positions. This done, the American ships resumed firing at 11:51 and pummeled the cruiser Furutaka. Burning from a hit to its torpedo tubes, Furutaka lost power after taking a torpedo from Buchanan. While the cruiser was burning, the Americans shifted their fire to the destroyer Fubuki sinking it. As the battle raged, the cruiser Kinugasa and destroyer Hatsuyuki turned away and missed the brunt of the American attack. Pursuing the fleeing Japanese ships, Boise was nearly hit by torpedoes from Kinugasa at 12:06 AM. Turning on their searchlights to illuminate the Japanese cruiser, Boise and Salt Lake City immediately took fire, with the former taking a hit to its magazine. At 12:20, with the Japanese retreating and his ships disorganized, Hall broke off the action. Later that night, Furutaka sank as a result of battle damage, and Duncan was lost to raging fires. Learning of the bombardment forces crisis, Jojima detached four destroyers to its aid after disembarking his troops. The next day, two of these, Murakumo and Shirayuki, were sunk by aircraft from Henderson Field. Aftermath The Battle of Cape Esperance cost Hall the destroyer Duncan and 163 killed. In addition, Boise and Farenholt were badly damaged. For the Japanese, losses included a cruiser and three destroyers, as well as 341–454 killed. Also, Aoba was badly damaged and out of action until February 1943. The Battle of Cape Esperance was the first Allied triumph over the Japanese in a night battle. A tactical victory for Hall, the engagement had little strategic significance as Jojima was able to deliver his troops. In assessing the battle, many of the American officers felt that chance had played a key role in allowing them to surprise the Japanese. This luck would not hold, and Allied naval forces were badly defeated on November 20, 1942, at the nearby Battle of Tassafaronga. Selected Sources US Naval Historical Center: Battle of Cape EsperanceOrder of Battle: Battle of Cape Esperance

Apple Inc. and Samsung Electronics Co. Face off in Court Article - 1

Apple Inc. and Samsung Electronics Co. Face off in Court - Article Example Apple asserted that Samsung made their devices so identical that customers could perceive those products, produced by Samsung, as made by Apple. A Research carried to this effect, based on witnesses’ testimonies indicated to the court that a substantial number of consumers has confused Samsung tablet computers and smartphones as Apple products. In response to the accusations, Samsung Electronics Co. Countered the claims, arguing that the technology applied on their Galaxy phones and Tablet computers require two fingers in scrolling as opposed to one finger technology applied by Apple Inc. In addition, Samsung claimed that their products do not bounce at the end, to signal users that it has reached the edged. This case presents allegations of a higher gravity, owing to the nature of the products involved, the investments and technologies applied and the large firms. It is a case that could impact greatly on either company once a determination is given. However, the case is still being pursued and Samsung is yet to present its witnesses and testimonies to refute the allegations made by Apple Inc. It is understood that registering products for patent or for intellectual property rights, is a part of the many strategies in business leveraging and in ensuring that their innovations and privacy will not be breached by other companies engaged in similar businesses. In the light of this, Apple its products with an aim of presenting distinction and excellence, and to realize what it is known for, dictating what the customer needs. If details of the invention and innovation are permitted to be copied, the company which originally made the product will lose their profit margin. This could adversely impact on its internal financial management, marketing strategies and operational budgets. This illustrates how the breach of patents could impact the marketing and production of their products. Business is competitive leveraging to satisfy consumer’s wants and achieve company’s target. It is about earning the return on investment. It is an intellectual right. It is justified therefore to bring to court those who pirate products.

International Trade Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

International Trade Law - Essay Example The researcher of this essay describes the development of the customs unions and free trade areas that adheres to Article XXIV of GATT that also generates a production effect that results in amore efficient use of world resources. Eliminating the tariff barriers means being able to compete against lower-cost and more efficient producers. Inefficient domestic producers drop out of the market resulting in a decline in home output. Although a customs union may add to world welfare by way of trade creation, its trade diversification effect generally implies a welfare loss. The formation of a customs union will increase the welfare of its members as well as the rest of the world, if the positive trade creation more that offsets the negative trade diversion effect. In extreme cases where the union is made up of the entire world, there can only exist trade creation and not trade diversion. The scope of trade diversion is smaller when the customs union’s common external tariff is lowe r. The transition for a Market-Oriented Economy, that was describes in the essay requires giving up ownership of privately owned properties and removing central planning systems for decent living standards. Therefore, to maintain healthy market economies would require: establishment of sound fiscal and monetary policies; removing price controls; opening economies to competitive market forces; establishing private property rights and a legal system to protect those rights; and reducing government involvement in the economy for an open trade.

Assessment methods, their merits and demerits Essay Example for Free

Assessment methods, their merits and demerits Essay Mainly, three types of assessments are in practice, initial, formative and summative assessment. Initial assessment can be a formal or informal process of identifying each learner’s strengths and help them to understand their areas of development, and the setting action plan accordingly. In formative assessment, teacher or assessor monitor students learning performance during the learning time against a set criteria. Students struggling areas are identified by feedback records and action plan for teachers to adopt teaching strategies and student to motivate for more study is adjusted. In Summative assessment, teacher evaluates the learner’s performance at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against a standard and other students’ performance. Summative assessments are high stakes or high point values and include: a)Written exams b)Quizzes c)Dissertations and projects d)Instead of comparing the advantages and disadvantages of these assessment types, I would prefer to discuss assessment instruments I used in these assessments and talk about their merits and demerits. Assessment typeStrengthLimitations 1.Written exams 1. Good tool to assess students’ knowledge without guessing. 2. It forces student to think and articulate that thinking. 3. Take less time to create test as compared to MCQ where assessor has to make more choices and student will choose one. 4. Teacher can provide better feedback on answers. 1. These tests needs language skills with and ESL students can’t demonstrate their capabilities. 2. These tests are time bounds and a slow writing student may not able to show his full knowledge. 3. Performance in these test based on memorizing facts instead of showing creativity. Assessment typeStrengthLimitations 2.Oral Exams1. This format decreases miscommunication and misunderstanding  while questioning or answering. 2. Student doesn’t need to follow any set lines for answer. 3. Give more chances to examiner to ask how student came to this answer. 4. More assessors can take part in this format. 5. More areas can be covered in less time. 1. Could be biased and less fair result oriented. 2. Requires a trained examiner to set such format which cost more. 3. Shy students can be distracted by other factors and c\they may not give their fullest. Assessment typeStrengthLimitations 3. Portfolios1. Assess and promote critical thinking. 2. Give opportunity learner to be self-directed, active, peer -supported and independent. 3. More than one assessor validates the performance. 4.Promotes creativity and problem solving 5. can be used to assess professional and personal development.1. Difficult to identify whether this is student’s own effort or somebody else’s. 2. Involve large amount of paper work which gives less time to focus on course. 3. Reliability issues. 4. Student can easily hide their weaknesses in this type of assessment. Assessment typeStrengthLimitations 4. Projects and dissertations1. All round ability testing i.e practical, analytical and interpretative skills. 2. Teaches students time management and if in group then teaches leadership and team work skills. 3. Increase motivation to complete task quickly and in time.1. Making of such format assessment is hectic and time consuming. 2. Validity and reliability of assessment is not high as compared to other formats. 3. If resources not available to learning, performance will be compromised. In my teaching career, I have gone through all above mentioned assessment tools and found written exams are widely used in many parts of world. People love written exams because they pile up work and when exam is near, they memorize it and ready for exam, no creative work during the term just collecting the notes. Trend is slightly changing in the world and other assessment tools are in practice, mostly university are assessing courses by  assignments, project and dissertations and these formats require continuous study and work that’s develop students other skills along with the completion of these tasks.

Jim Morrison Essay -- Biography

Hopkins and Sugerman (2006) and Stone (1991) developed the image of Morrison as a shaman and as Lizard King based on the development, by Morrison, of his role as a shaman and the image of the Lizard King. This image was the â€Å"existing value structure† of Morrison at the time of his death, despite attempts made by Morrison to change this image. As the â€Å"the way in which the total image grows determines or at least limits the direction of future growth,† Hopkins and Sugerman (2006) and Stone (1991) were working within the parameters of Morrison's image. Thus, the image of Morrison as a shaman and Lizard King became internally coherent and consistent through repetition and served to organize both historical and posthumous ideas about Morrison, superseding reality. Peter Jan Margry (2008, 145), in â€Å"The Pilgrimage to Jim Morrison's Grave at Pà ¨re Lachaise Cemetery: the Social Construction of Sacred Space,† writes of Stone (1991) â€Å"[giving] a whole new impetus to this mythologizing [of Morrison].† â€Å"The film† writes Margry (2008, 145), â€Å"partly confirmed the existing image but added new, powerful iconographies and narratives.† Popular biographies of Morrison, published since Hopkins and Sugerman (2006), have emphasized the mythic implications of Morrison's life story, such as the development of mythos surrounding Morrison during his life, his mysterious death and the development of a cult following, involving pilgrimage to his grave in Paris (see Davis 2005; Densmore 1990; Henke 2007; Hopkins 2010; Mazerak 1999; Riordan and Prochnicky 2006). The significance of understanding Morrison as a shaman relates to the origins of attribution. Morrison, through self-characterization as a shaman, instigated the assignment of a religious aura sur... ...onal autonomy and archetypal rock star decadence. As Morrison has not been subject to a study of commodification, as has Presley, then the study of Morrison as a commodity, and its religion to consideration of him as a â€Å"religious figure,† warrants future study. Ultimately, to understand the development of a religious aura, surrounding Morrison, and Morrison as a â€Å"religious figure,† all aspects of his life and image must be accounted for. Historically, his life, self-propagated myth, image, death and potential as a commodity. Posthumously, his popular myth, pilgrimage to his gravesite and commodification of his image. Morrison as a shaman and Lizard King is only one reason for his religious aura; its contribution to the development of the popular myth, along with the central values contained in his image, contributed to the idea of Morrison as a â€Å"religious figure.†